********** Data Types ********** Numeric Types ============= CUBRID supports the following numeric data types to store integers or real numbers. +----------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ | Type | Bytes | Min | Max | Exact/approx. | +======================+===========+=================================+================================+=====================+ | **SHORT**, | 2 | -32,768 | 32,767 | exact numeric | | **SMALLINT** | | | | | +----------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ | **INTEGER**, | 4 | -2,147,483,648 | +2,147,483,647 | exact numeric | | **INT** | | | | | +----------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ | **BIGINT** | 8 | -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 | +9,223,372,036,854,775,807 | exact numeric | +----------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ | **NUMERIC**, | 16 | precision *p*: 1 | precision *p*: 38 | exact numeric | | **DECIMAL** | | | | | | | | scale *s*: 0 | scale *s*: 38 | | +----------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ | **FLOAT**, | 4 | -3.402823466E+38 | +3.402823466E+38 | approximate numeric | | **REAL** | | (ANSI/IEEE 754-1985 standard) | (ANSI/IEEE 754-1985 standard) | floating point : 7 | +----------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ | **DOUBLE**, | 8 | -1.7976931348623157E+308 | +1.7976931348623157E+308 | approximate numeric | | **DOUBLE PRECISION** | | (ANSI/IEEE 754-1985 standard) | (ANSI/IEEE 754-1985 standard) | floating point : 15 | +----------------------+-----------+---------------------------------+--------------------------------+---------------------+ Numeric data types are divided into exact and approximate types. Exact numeric data types (**SMALLINT**, **INT**, **BIGINT**, **NUMERIC**) are used for numbers whose values must be precise and consistent, such as the numbers used in financial accounting. Note that even when the literal values are equal, approximate numeric data types (**FLOAT**, **DOUBLE**) can be interpreted differently depending on the system. CUBRID does not support the UNSIGNED type for numeric data types. On the above table, two types on the same cell are identical types but it always prints the above type name when you execute :ref:`show-columns-statement` statement. For example, you can use both **SHORT** and **SMALLINT** when you create a table, but it prints "SHORT" when you execute :ref:`show-columns-statement` statement. **Precision and Scale** The precision of numeric data types is defined as the number of significant figures. This applies to both exact and approximate numeric data types. The scale represents the number of digits following the decimal point. It is significant only in exact numeric data types. Attributes declared as exact numeric data types always have fixed precision and scale. **NUMERIC** (or **DECIMAL**) data type always has at least one-digit precision, and the scale should be between 0 and the precision declared. Scale cannot be greater than precision. For **INTEGER**, **SMALLINT**, or **BIGINT** data types, the scale is 0 (i.e. no digits following the decimal point), and the precision is fixed by the system. **Numeric Literals** Special signs can be used to input numeric values. The plus sign (+) and minus sign (-) are used to represent positive and negative numbers respectively. You can also use scientific notations. In addition, you can use currency signs specified in the system to represent currency values. The maximum precision that can be expressed by a numeric literal is 255. **Numeric Coercions** All numeric data type values can be compared with each other. To do this, automatic coercion to the common numeric data type is performed. For explicit coercion, use the **CAST** operator. When different data types are sorted or calculated in a numerical expression, the system performs automatic coercion. For example, when adding a **FLOAT** attribute value to an **INTEGER** attribute value, the system automatically coerces the **INTEGER** value to the most approximate **FLOAT** value before it performs the addition operation. The following is an example to print out the value of **FLOAT** type when adding the value of **INTEGER** type to the value of **FLOAT** type. .. code-block:: sql CREATE TABLE tbl (a INT, b FLOAT); INSERT INTO tbl VALUES (10, 5.5); SELECT a + b FROM tbl; :: 1.550000e+01 This is an example of overflow error occurred when adding two integer values, the following can be an **INTEGER** type value for the result. .. code-block:: sql SELECT 100000000*1000000; :: ERROR: Data overflow on data type integer. In the above case, if you specify one of two integers as the **BIGINT** type, it will determine the result value into the **BIGINT** type, and then output the normal result. .. code-block:: sql SELECT CAST(100000000 AS BIGINT)*1000000; :: 100000000000000 .. warning:: Earlier version than CUBRID 2008 R2.0, the input constant value exceeds **INTEGER**, it is handled as **NUMERIC**. However, 2008 R2.0 or later versions, it is handled as **BIGINT** . INT/INTEGER ----------- The **INTEGER** data type is used to represent integers. The value range is available is from -2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647. **SMALLINT** is used for small integers, and **BIGINT** is used for big integers. * If a real number is entered for an **INT** type, the number is rounded to zero decimal place and the integer value is stored. * **INTEGER** and **INT** are used interchangeably. * **DEFAULT** constraint can be specified in a column of this type. :: If you specify 8934 as INTEGER, 8934 is stored. If you specify 7823467 as INTEGER, 7823467 is stored. If you specify 89.8 to an INTEGER, 90 is stored (all digits after the decimal point are rounded). If you specify 3458901122 as INTEGER, an error occurs (if the allowable limit is exceeded). SHORT/SMALLINT -------------- The **SMALLINT** data type is used to represent a small integer type. The value range is available is from -32,768 to +32,767. * If a real number is entered for an **SMALLINT** type, the number is rounded to zero decimal place and the integer value is stored. * **SMALLINT** and **SHORT** are used interchangeably. * **DEFAULT** constraint can be specified in a column of this type. :: If you specify 8934 as SMALLINT, 8934 is stored. If you specify 34.5 as SMALLINT, 35 is stored (all digits after the decimal point are rounded). If you specify 23467 as SMALLINT, 23467 is stored. If you specify 89354 as SMALLINT, an error occurs (if the allowable limit is exceeded). BIGINT ------ The **BIGINT** data type is used to represent big integers. The value range is available from -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807. * If a real number is entered for a **BIG** type, the number is rounded to zero decimal place and the integer value is stored. * Based on the precision and the range of representation, the following order is applied. **SMALLINT** ⊂ **INTEGER** ⊂ **BIGINT** ⊂ **NUMERIC** * **DEFAULT** constraint can be specified in a column of this type. :: If you specify 8934 as BIGINT, 8934 is stored. If you specify 89.1 as BIGINT, 89 is stored. If you specify 89.8 as BIGINT, 90 is stored (all digits after the decimal point are rounded). If you specify 3458901122 as BIGINT, 3458901122 is stored. NUMERIC/DECIMAL --------------- **NUMERIC** or **DECIMAL** data types are used to represent fixed-point numbers. As an option, the total number of digits (precision) and the number of digits after the decimal point (scale) can be specified for definition. The minimum value for the precision *p* is 1. When the precision *p* is omitted, you cannot enter data whose integer part exceeds 15 digits because the default value is 15. If the scale *s* is omitted, an integer rounded to the first digit after the decimal point is returned because the default value is 0. :: NUMERIC [(p[, s])] * Precision must be equal to or greater than scale. * Precision must be equal to or greater than the number of integer digits + scale. * **NUMERIC**, **DECIMAL**, and **DEC** are used interchangeably. * To check how the precision and the scale became changed when you operate with **NUMERIC** typed values, see :ref:`numeric-data-type-op-and-conversion`. * **DEFAULT** constraint can be specified in a column of this type. :: If you specify 12345.6789 as NUMERIC, 12346 is stored (it rounds to the first place after the decimal point since 0 is the default value of scale). If you specify 12345.6789 as NUMERIC(4), an error occurs (precision must be equal to or greater than the number of integer digits). If you declare NUMERIC(3,4), an error occurs (precision must be equal to or greater than the scale). If you specify 0.12345678 as NUMERIC(4,4), .1235 is stored (it rounds to the fifth place after the decimal point). If you specify -0.123456789 as NUMERIC(4,4), -.1235 is stored (it rounds to the fifth place after decimal point and then prefixes a minus (-) sign). FLOAT/REAL ---------- The **FLOAT** (or **REAL**) data type represents floating point numbers. The ranges of values that can be described as normalized values are from -3.402823466E+38 to -1.175494351E-38, 0, and from +1.175494351E-38 to +3.402823466E+38, whereas the values other than normalized values, which are closer to 0, are described as de-normalized values. It conforms to the ANSI/IEEE 754-1985 standard. The minimum value for the precision *p* is 1 and the maximum value is 38. When the precision *p* is omitted or it is specified as seven or less, it is represented as single precision (in 7 significant figures). If the precision *p* is greater than 7 and equal to or less than 38, it is represented as double precision (in 15 significant figures) and it is converted into **DOUBLE** data type. **FLOAT** data types must not be used if you want to store a precise value that exceeds the number of significant figures, as they only store the approximate value of any input value over 7 significant figures. :: FLOAT[(p)] * **FLOAT** is in 7 significant figures. * Extra cautions are required when comparing data because the **FLOAT** type stores approximate numeric. * **FLOAT** and **REAL** are used interchangeably. * **DEFAULT** constraint can be specified in a column of this type. :: If you specify 16777217 as FLOAT, 16777216 is stored and 1.677722e+07 is displayed (if precision is omitted, 8-th digit is rounded up because it is represented as 7 significant figures). If you specify 16777217 as FLOAT(5), 16777216 is stored and 1.677722e+07 is displayed (if precision is in seven or less, 8-th digit is rounded up because it is represented as 7 significant figures). If you specify 16777.217 as FLOAT(5), 16777.216 is stored and 1.677722e+04 is displayed (if precision is in seven or less, 8-th digit is rounded up because it is represented as 7 significant figures). If you specify 16777.217 as FLOAT(10), 16777.217 is stored and 1.677721700000000e+04 is displayed (if precision is greater than 7 and less than or equal to 38, zeroes are added because it is represented as 15 significant figures). DOUBLE/DOUBLE PRECISION ----------------------- The **DOUBLE** data type is used to represent floating point numbers. The ranges of values that can be described as normalized values are from -1.7976931348623157E+308 to -2.2250738585072014E-308, 0, and from 2.2250738585072014E-308 to 1.7976931348623157E+308, whereas the values other than normalized values, which are closer to 0, are described as de-normalized values. It conforms to the ANSI/IEEE 754-1985 standard. The precision *p* is not specified. The data specified as this data type is represented as double precision (in 15 significant figures). **DOUBLE** data types must not be used if you want to store a precise value that exceeds the number of significant figures, as they only store the approximate value of any input value over 15 significant figures. * **DOUBLE** is in 15 significant figures. * Extra caution is required when comparing data because the **DOUBLE** type stores approximate numeric. * **DOUBLE** and **DOUBLE PRECISION** are used interchangeably. * **DEFAULT** constraint can be specified in a column of this type. :: If you specify 1234.56789 as DOUBLE, 1234.56789 is stored and 1.234567890000000e+03 is displayed. If you specify 9007199254740993 as DOUBLE, 9007199254740992 is stored and 9.007199254740992e+15 is displayed. .. note:: MONETARY type is deprecated, and it is not recommended anymore. .. _date-time-type: Date/Time Types =============== Date/time data types are used to represent the date or time (or both together). CUBRID supports the following data types: +---------------+-----------+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Type | bytes | Min. | Max. | Note | +===============+===========+===========================+===========================+=====================================================================+ | **DATE** | 4 | 0001-01-01 | 9999-12-31 | As an exception, DATE '0000-00-00' format is allowed. | +---------------+-----------+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **TIME** | 4 | 00:00:00 | 23:59:59 | | +---------------+-----------+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **TIMESTAMP** | 4 | 1970-01-01 00:00:01 (GMT) | 2038-01-19 03:14:07 (GMT) | As an exception, TIMESTAMP '0000-00-00 00:00:00' format is allowed. | | | | 1970-01-01 09:00:01 (KST) | 2038-01-19 12:14:07 (KST) | | +---------------+-----------+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **DATETIME** | 8 | 0001-01-01 00:00:0.000 | 9999-12-31 23:59:59.999 | As an exception, DATETIME '0000-00-00 00:00:00' format is allowed. | +---------------+-----------+---------------------------+---------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Range and Resolution** * By default, the range of a time value is represented by the 24-hour system. Dates follow the Gregorian calendar. An error occurs if a value that does not meet these two constraints is entered as a date or time. * The range of year in **DATE** is 0001 - 9999 AD. * From the CUBRID 2008 R3.0 version, if time value is represented with two-digit numbers, a number from 00 to 69 is converted into a number from 2000 to 2069; a number from 70 to 99 is converted into a number from 1970 to 1999. In earlier than CUBRID 2008 R3.0 version, if time value is represented with two-digit numbers, a number from 01 to 99 is converted into a number from 0001 to 0099. * The range of **TIMESTAMP** is between 1970-01-01 00:00:01 and 2038-01-19 03 03:14:07 (GMT). For KST (GMT+9), values from 1970-01-01 09:00:01 to 2038-01-19 12:14:07 can be stored. timestamp'1970-01-01 00:00:00' (GMT) is the same as timestamp'0000-00-00 00:00:00'. * The results of date, time and timestamp operations may depend on the rounding mode. In these cases, for Time and Timestamp, the most approximate second is used as the minimum resolution; for Date, the most approximate date is used as the minimum resolution. **Coercions** The **Date** / **Time** types can be cast explicitly using the **CAST** operator only when they have the same field. For implicit coercion, see :ref:`implicit-type-conversion`. The following table shows types that allows explicit coercions. For implicit coercion, see :ref:`arithmetic-op-type-casting`. **Explicit Coercions** +----------------+------+------+----------+-----------+ | FROM \\ TO | DATE | TIME | DATETIME | TIMESTAMP | +================+======+======+==========+===========+ | **DATE** | \- | X | O | O | +----------------+------+------+----------+-----------+ | **TIME** | X | \- | X | X | +----------------+------+------+----------+-----------+ | **DATETIME** | O | O | \- | O | +----------------+------+------+----------+-----------+ | **TIMESTAMP** | O | O | O | \- | +----------------+------+------+----------+-----------+ In general, zero is not allowed in **DATE**, **DATETIME**, and **TIMESTAMP** types. However, if both date and time values are 0, it is allowed as an exception. This is useful in terms that this value can be used if an index exists upon query execution of a column corresponding to the type. * Some functions in which the **DATE**, **DATETIME**, and **TIMESTAMP** types are specified as an argument return different value based on the **return_null_on_function_errors** system parameter if every input argument value for date and time is 0. If **return_null_on_function_errors** is yes, **NULL** is returned; if no, an error is returned. The default value is **no**. * The functions that return **DATE**, **DATETIME**, and **TIMESTAMP** types can return a value of 0 for date and time. However, these values cannot be stored in Date objects in Java applications. Therefore, it will be processed with one of the following based on the configuration of zeroDateTimeBehavior, the connection URL property: being handled as an exception, returning **NULL**, or returning a minimum value (see :ref:`jdbc-connection-conf`). * If the **intl_date_lang** system is configured, input string of :func:`TO_DATE`, :func:`TO_TIME`, :func:`TO_DATETIME`, :func:`TO_TIMESTAMP`, :func:`DATE_FORMAT`, :func:`TIME_FORMAT`, :func:`TO_CHAR` and :func:`STR_TO_DATE` functions follows the corresponding locale date format. For details, see :ref:`stmt-type-parameters` and the description of each function. DATE ---- The **DATE** data type is used to represent the year (yyyy), month (mm) and day (dd). Supported range is "01/01/0001" to "12/31/9999." The year can be omitted. If it is, the year value of the current system is specified automatically. The specified input/output types are as follows: :: date'mm/dd[/yyyy]' date'[yyyy-]mm-dd' * All fields must be entered as integer. * The date value is displayed in the type of 'MM/DD/YYYY' in CSQL, and it is displayed in the type of 'YYYY-MM-DD' in JDBC application programs and the CUBRID Manager. * The :func:`TO_DATE` function is used to convert a character string type into a **DATE** type. * 0 is not allowed to input in year, month, and day; however, '0000-00-00', which every digit consisting of year, month, and day is 0, is allowed as an exception. * **DEFAULT** constraint can be specified in a column of this type. :: DATE'2008-10-31' is displayed as '10/31/2008'. DATE'10/31' is displayed as '10/31/2011'(if a value for year is omitted, the current year is automatically specified). DATE'00-10-31' is displayed as '10/31/2000'. DATE'0000-10-31' is displayed as an error (a year value should be at least 1). DATE'70-10-31' is displayed as '10/31/1970'. DATE'0070-10-31' is displayed as '10/31/0070'. TIME ---- The **TIME** data type is used to represent the hour (hh), minute (mm) and second (ss). Supported range is "00:00:00" to "23:59:59." Second can be omitted; if it is, 0 seconds is specified. Both 12-hour and 24-hour notations are allowed as an input format. The input format of **TIME** is as follows: :: time'hh:mi[:ss] [am | pm]' * All items must be entered as integer. * AM/PM time notation is used to display time in the CSQL; while the 24-hour notation is used in the CUBRID Manager. * AM/PM can be specified in the 24-hour notation. An error occurs if the time specified does not follow the AM/PM format. * Every time value is stored in the 24-hour notation. * The :func:`TO_TIME` function is used to return a character string type into a TIME type. * **DEFAULT** constraint can be specified in a column of this type. :: TIME'00:00:00' is outputted as '12:00:00 AM'. TIME'1:15' is regarded as '01:15:00 AM'. TIME'13:15:45' is regarded as '01:15:45 PM'. TIME'13:15:45 pm' is stored normally. TIME'13:15:45 am' is an error (an input value does not match the AM/PM format). TIMESTAMP --------- The **TIMESTAMP** data type is used to represent a data value in which the date (year, month, date) and time (hour, minute, second) are combined. The range of representable value is between GMT '1970-01-01 00:00:01' and '2038-01-19 03:14:07'. The **DATETIME** type can be used if the value is out of range or data in milliseconds is stored. The input format of **TIMESTAMP** is as follows: :: timestamp'hh:mi[:ss] [am|pm] mm/dd[/yyyy]' timestamp'hh:mi[:ss] [am|pm] [yyyy-]mm-dd' timestamp'mm/dd[/yyyy] hh:mi[:ss] [am|pm]' timestamp'[yyyy-]mm-dd hh:mi[:ss] [am|pm]' * All fields must be entered in integer format. * If the year is omitted, the current year is specified by default. If the time value (hour/minute/second) is omitted, 12:00:00 AM is specified. * You can store the timestamp value of the system in the **TIMESTAMP** type by using the :c:macro:`SYS_TIMESTAMP`\ (or :c:macro:`SYSTIMESTAMP`, :c:macro:`CURRENT_TIMESTAMP`). * The :func:`TIMESTAMP` or :func:`TO_TIMESTAMP` function is used to cast a character string type into a **TIMESTAMP** type. * 0 is not allowed to input in year, month, and day; however, '0000-00-00 00:00:00', which every digit consisting of year, month, day, hour, minute, and second is 0, is allowed as an exception. GMT timestamp'1970-01-01 12:00:00 AM' or KST timestamp'1970-01-01 09:00:00 AM' is translated into timestamp'0000-00-00 00:00:00'. * **DEFAULT** constraint can be specified in a column of this type. :: TIMESTAMP'10/31' is outputted as '12:00:00 AM 10/31/2011' (if the value for year/time is omitted, a default value is outputted ). TIMESTAMP'10/31/2008' is outputted as '12:00:00 AM 10/31/2008' (if the value for time is omitted, a default value is outputted ). TIMESTAMP'13:15:45 10/31/2008' is outputted as '01:15:45 PM 10/31/2008'. TIMESTAMP'01:15:45 PM 2008-10-31' is outputted as '01:15:45 PM 10/31/2008'. TIMESTAMP'13:15:45 2008-10-31' is outputted as '01:15:45 PM 10/31/2008'. TIMESTAMP'10/31/2008 01:15:45 PM' is outputted as '01:15:45 PM 10/31/2008'. TIMESTAMP'10/31/2008 13:15:45' is outputted as '01:15:45 PM 10/31/2008'. TIMESTAMP'2008-10-31 01:15:45 PM' is outputted as '01:15:45 PM 10/31/2008'. TIMESTAMP'2008-10-31 13:15:45' is outputted as '01:15:45 PM 10/31/2008'. An error occurs on TIMESTAMP '2099-10-31 01:15:45 PM' (out of range to represent TIMESTAMP). DATETIME -------- The **DATETIME** data type is used to represent a data value in which the data (year, month, date) and time (hour, minute, second) are combined. The range of representable value is between 0001-01-01 00:00:00.000 and 9999-12-31 23:59:59.999 (GMT). The input format of **TIMESTAMP** is as follows: :: datetime'hh:mi[:ss[.msec]] [am|pm] mm/dd[/yyyy]' datetime'hh:mi[:ss[.msec]] [am|pm] [yyyy-]mm-dd' datetime'mm/dd[/yyyy] hh:mi[:ss[.ff]] [am|pm]' datetime'[yyyy-]mm-dd hh:mi[:ss[.ff]] [am|pm]' * All fields must be entered as integer. * If you year is omitted, the current year is specified by default. If the value (hour, minute/second) is omitted, 12:00:00.000 AM is specified. * You can store the timestamp value of the system in the **DATETIME** type by using the :c:macro:`SYS_DATETIME` (or :c:macro:`SYSDATETIME`, :c:macro:`CURRENT_DATETIME`, :func:`CURRENT_DATETIME`, :func:`NOW`) function. * The :func:`TO_DATETIME` function is used to convert a string type into a **DATETIME** type. * 0 is not allowed to input in year, month, and day; however, '0000-00-00 00:00:00', which every digit consisting of year, month, day, hour, minute, and second is 0, is allowed as an exception. * **DEFAULT** constraint can be specified in a column of this type. :: DATETIME'10/31' is outputted as '12:00:00.000 AM 10/31/2011' (if the value for year/time is omitted, a default value is outputted). DATETIME'10/31/2008' is outputted as '12:00:00.000 AM 10/31/2008'. DATETIME'13:15:45 10/31/2008' is outputted as '01:15:45.000 PM 10/31/2008'. DATETIME'01:15:45 PM 2008-10-31' is outputted as '01:15:45.000 PM 10/31/2008'. DATETIME'13:15:45 2008-10-31' is outputted as '01:15:45.000 PM 10/31/2008'. DATETIME'10/31/2008 01:15:45 PM' is outputted as '01:15:45.000 PM 10/31/2008'. DATETIME'10/31/2008 13:15:45' is outputted as '01:15:45.000 PM 10/31/2008'. DATETIME'2008-10-31 01:15:45 PM' is outputted as '01:15:45.000 PM 10/31/2008'. DATETIME'2008-10-31 13:15:45' is outputted as '01:15:45.000 PM 10/31/2008'. DATETIME'2099-10-31 01:15:45 PM' is outputted as '01:15:45.000 PM 10/31/2099'. .. _cast-string-to-datetime: CASTing a String to Date/Time Type ---------------------------------- .. _cast-to-datetime-recommend: Recommended Format for Strings in Date/Time Type ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ When you casting a string to Date/Time type by using the :func:`CAST` function, it is recommended to write the string in the following format: Note that date/time string formats used in the :func:`CAST` function are not affected by locale which is specified by creating DB. Also, in :func:`TO_DATE`, :func:`TO_TIME`, :func:`TO_DATETIME`, :func:`TO_TIMESTAMP` functions, when date/time format is omitted, write the date/time string in the following format. * **DATE** Type :: YYYY-MM-DD MM/DD/YYYY * **TIME** Type :: HH:MI:SS [AM|PM] * **DATETIME** Type :: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS[.msec] [AM|PM] HH:MI:SS[.msec] [AM|PM] YYYY-MM-DD MM/DD/YYYY HH:MI:SS[.msec] [AM|PM] HH:MI:SS[.msec] [AM|PM] MM/DD/YYYY * **TIMESTAMP** Type :: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS [AM|PM] HH:MI:SS [AM|PM] YYYY-MM-DD MM/DD/YYYY HH:MI:SS [AM|PM] HH:MI:SS [AM|PM] MM/DD/YYYY Available Format for Strings in Date/Time Type ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ :func:`CAST` function allows the below format for date/time strings. **Available DATE String Format** :: [year sep] month sep day * 2011-04-20: April 20th, 2011 * 04-20: April 20th of this year If a separator (*sep*) is a slash (/), strings are recognized in the following order: :: month/day[/year] * 04/20/2011: April 20th, 2011 * 04/20: April 20th of this year If you do not use a separator (*sep*), strings are recognized in the following format. It is allowed to use 1, 2, and 4 digits for years and 1 and 2 digits for months. For day, you should always enter 2 digits. :: YYYYMMDD YYMMDD YMMDD MMDD MDD * 20110420: April 20th, 2011 * 110420: April 20th, 2011 * 420: April 20th of this year **Available TIME String Format** :: [hour]:min[:[sec]][.[msec]] [am|pm] * 09:10:15.359 am: 9 hours 10 minutes 15 seconds AM (0.359 seconds will be truncated) * 09:10:15: 9 hours 10 minutes 15 seconds AM * 09:10: 9 hours 10 minutes AM * \:10: 12 hours 10 minutes AM :: [[[[[[Y]Y]Y]Y]M]MDD]HHMISS[.[msec]] [am|pm] * 20110420091015.359 am: 9 hours 10 minutes 15 seconds AM * 0420091015: 9 hours 10 minutes 15 seconds AM :: [H]HMMSS[.[msec]] [am|pm] * 091015.359 am: 9 hours 10 minutes 15 seconds AM * 91015: 9 hours 10 minutes 15 seconds AM :: [M]MSS[.[msec]] [am|pm] * 1015.359 am: 12 hours 10 minutes 15 seconds AM * 1015: 12 hours 10 minutes 15 seconds AM :: [S]S[.[msec]] [am|pm] * 15.359 am: 12 hours 15 seconds AM * 15: 12 hours 15 seconds AM .. note:: : The [H]H format was allowed in CUBRID 2008 R3.1 and the earlier versions. That is, the string '10' was converted to **TIME** '10:00:00' in the R3.1 and the earlier versions, and will be converted to **TIME** '00:00:10' in version R4.0 and later. **Available DATETIME String Format** :: [year sep] month sep day [sep] [sep] hour [sep min[sep sec[.[msec]]]] * 04-20 09: April 20th of this year, 9 hours AM :: month/day[/year] [sep] hour [sep min [sep sec[.[msec]]]] * 04/20 09: April 20th of this year, 9 hours AM :: year sep month sep day sep hour [sep min[sep sec[.[msec]]]] * 2011-04-20 09: April 20th, 2011, 9 hours AM :: month/day/year sep hour [sep min[sep sec [.[msec]]]] * 04/20/2011 09: April 20th, 2011, 9 hours AM :: YYMMDDH (It is allowed only when time format is one digit.) * 1104209: April 20th, 2011, 9 hours AM :: YYMMDDHHMI[SS[.msec]] * 1104200910.359: April 20th, 2011, 9 hours 10 minutes AM (0.359 seconds will be truncated) * 110420091000.359: April 20th, 2011, 9 hours 10 minutes 0.359 seconds AM :: YYYYMMDDHHMISS[.msec] * 201104200910.359: November 4th, 2020 8 hours 9 minutes 10.359 seconds PM * 20110420091000.359: April 20th, 2011, 9 hours 10 minutes 0.359 seconds AM **Available Time-Date String Format** :: [hour]:min[:sec[.msec]] [am|pm] [year-]month-day * 09:10:15.359 am 2011-04-20: April 20th, 2011, 9 hours 10 minutes 15.359 seconds AM * \:10 04-20: April 20th of this year, 12 hours 10 minutes AM :: [hour]:min[:sec[.msec]] [am|pm] month/day[/[year]] * 09:10:15.359 am 04/20/2011: April 20th, 2011, 9 hours 10 minutes 15.359 seconds AM * \:10 04/20: April 20th of this year, 12 hours 10 minutes AM :: hour[:min[:sec[.[msec]]]] [am|pm] [year-]month-day * 09:10:15.359 am 04-20: April 20th of this year, 9 hours 10 minutes 15.359 seconds AM * 09 04-20: April 20th of this year, 9 hours AM :: hour[:min[:sec[.[msec]]]] [am|pm] month/day[/[year]] * 09:10:15.359 am 04/20: April 20th of this year, 9 hours 10 minutes, 15.359 seconds AM * 09 04/20: April 20th of this year, 9 hours AM **Rules** *msec* is a series of numbers representing milliseconds. The numbers after the fourth digit will be ignored. The rules for the separator string are as follows: * You should always use one colon (:) as a separator for the **TIME** separator. * **DATE** and **DATETIME** strings can be represented as a series of numbers without the separator sep), and non-alphanumeric characters can be used as separators. The **DATETIME** string can be divided into Time and Date with a space. * Separators should be identical in the input string. * For the Time-Date string, you can only use colon (:) for a Time separator and hyphen (-) or slash (/) for a Date separator. If you use a hyphen when entering date, you should enter like yyyy-mm-dd; in case of a slash, enter like mm/dd/yyyy. The following rules will be applied in the part of date. * You can omit the year as long as the syntax allows it. * If you enter the year as two digits, it represents the range from 1970-2069. That is, if YY<70, it is treated as 2000+YY; if YY>=70, it is treated as 1900+YY. If you enter one, three or four digit numbers for the year, the numbers will be represented as they are. * A space before and after a string and the string next to the space are ignored. The am/pm identifier for the **DATETIME** and **TIME** strings can be recognized as part of TIME value, but are not recognized as the am/pm identifier if non-space characters are added to it. The **TIMESTAMP** type of CUBRID consists of **DATE** type and **TIME** type, and **DATETIME** type consists of **DATE** type and **TIME** type with milliseconds being added to them. Input strings can include Date (**DATE** string), Time (**TIME** string), or both (**DATETIME** strings). You can convert a string including a specific type of data to another type, and the following rules will be applied for the conversion. * If you convert the **DATE** string to the **DATETIME** type, the time value will be '00:00:00.' * If you convert the **TIME** string to the **DATETIME** type, colon (:) is recognized as a date separator, so that the **TIME** string can be recognized as a date string and the time value will be '00:00:00.' * If you convert the **DATETIME** string to the **DATE** type, the time part will be ignored from the result but the time input value format should be valid. * You can covert the **DATETIME** string to the **TIME** type, and you must follow the following rules. * The date and time in the string must be divided by at least one blank. * The date part of the result value is ignored but the date input value format should be valid. * The year in the date part must be over 4 digits (available to start with 0) or the time part must include hours and minutes ([H]H:[M]M) at least. Otherwise the date pate are recognized as the TIME type of the [MM]SS format, and the following string will be ignored. * If the one of the units (year, month, date, hour, minute and second) of the **DATETIME** string is greater than 999999, it is not recognized as a number, so the string including the corresponding unit will be ignored. For example, in '2009-10-21 20:9943:10', an error occurs because the value in minutes is out of the range. However, if '2009-10-21 20:1000123:10' is entered,'2009' is recognized as the **TIME** type of the MMSS format, so that **TIME** '00:20:09' will be returned. * If you convert the time-date sting to the **TIME** type, the date part of the string is ignored but the date part format must be valid. * All input strings including the time part allow *[.msec]* on conversion, but only the **DATETIME** type can be maintained. If you convert this to a type such as **DATE**, **TIMESTAMP** or **TIME**, the *msec* value is discarded. * All conversions in the **DATETIME**, **TIME** string allow English locale following after time value or am/pm specifier written in the current locale of a server. .. code-block:: sql SELECT CAST('420' AS DATE); :: cast('420' as date) ====================== 04/20/2012 .. code-block:: sql SELECT CAST('91015' AS TIME); :: cast('91015' as time) ======================== 09:10:15 AM .. code-block:: sql SELECT CAST('110420091035.359' AS DATETIME); :: cast('110420091035.359' as datetime) ======================================= 09:10:35.359 AM 04/20/2011 .. code-block:: sql SELECT CAST('110420091035.359' AS TIMESTAMP); :: cast('110420091035.359' as timestamp) ======================================== 09:10:35 AM 04/20/2011 Bit Strings =========== A bit string is a sequence of bits (1's and 0's). Images (bitmaps) displayed on the computer screen can be stored as bit strings. CUBRID supports the following two types of bit strings: * Fixed-length bit string (**BIT**) * Variable-length bit string (**BIT VARYING**) A bit string can be used as a method argument or an attribute type. Bit string literals are represented in a binary or hexadecimal format. For binary format, append the string consisting of 0's and 1's to the letter **B** or append a value to the **0b** as shown example below. :: B'1010' 0b1010 For hexadecimal format, append the string consisting of the numbers 0 - 9 and the letters A - F to the uppercase letter **X** or append a value to the **0x** . The following is hexadecimal representation of the same number that was represented above in binary format. :: X'a' 0xA The letters used in hexadecimal numbers are not case-sensitive. That is, X'4f' and X'4F' are considered as the same value. **Length** If a bit string is used in table attributes or method declarations, you must specify the maximum length. The maximum length for a bit string is 1,073,741,823 bits. **Bit String Coercion** Automatic coercion is performed between a fixed-length and a variable-length bit string for comparison. For explicit coercion, use the :func:`CAST` operator. BIT(n) ------ Fixed-length binary or hexadecimal bit strings are represented as **BIT** (*n*), where *n* is the maximum number of bits. If *n* is not specified, the length is set to 1. If *n* is not specified, the length is set to 1. The bit string is filled with 8-bit unit from the left side. For example, the value of B'1' is the same as the value of B'10000000'. Therefore, it is recommended to declare a length by 8-bit unit, and input a value by 8-bit unit. .. note:: If you input B'1' to the BIT(4) column, it is printed out X'8' on CSQL, X'80' on CUBRID Manager, Query Browser or application program. * *n* must be a number greater than 0. * If the length of the string exceeds *n*, it is truncated and filled with 0s. * If a bit string smaller than *n* is stored, the remainder of the string is filled with 0s. * **DEFAULT** constraint can be specified in a column of this type. .. code-block:: sql CREATE TABLE bit_tbl(a1 BIT, a2 BIT(1), a3 BIT(8), a4 BIT VARYING); INSERT INTO bit_tbl VALUES (B'1', B'1', B'1', B'1'); INSERT INTO bit_tbl VALUES (0b1, 0b1, 0b1, 0b1); INSERT INTO bit_tbl(a3,a4) VALUES (B'1010', B'1010'); INSERT INTO bit_tbl(a3,a4) VALUES (0xaa, 0xaa); SELECT * FROM bit_tbl; :: a1 a2 a3 a4 ========================================================================= X'8' X'8' X'80' X'8' X'8' X'8' X'80' X'8' NULL NULL X'a0' X'a' NULL NULL X'aa' X'aa' BIT VARYING(n) -------------- A variable-length bit string is represented as **BIT VARYING** (*n*), where *n* is the maximum number of bits. If *n* is not specified, the length is set to 1,073,741,823 (maximum value). *n* is the maximum number of bits. If *n* is not specified, the maximum length is set to 1,073,741,823. The bit string is filled with 8-bit values from the left side. For example, the value of B'1' is the same as the value of B'10000000'. Therefore, it is recommended to declare a length by 8-bit unit, and input a value by 8-bit unit. .. note:: If you input B'1' to the BIT VARYING(4) column, it is printed out X'8' on CSQL, X'80' on CUBRID Manager, Query Browser or application program. * If the length of the string exceeds *n*, it is truncated and filled with 0s. * The remainder of the string is not filled with 0s even if a bit string smaller than *n* is stored. * *n* must be a number greater than 0. * **DEFAULT** constraint can be specified in a column of this type. .. code-block:: sql CREATE TABLE bitvar_tbl(a1 BIT VARYING, a2 BIT VARYING(8)); INSERT INTO bitvar_tbl VALUES (B'1', B'1'); INSERT INTO bitvar_tbl VALUES (0b1010, 0b1010); INSERT INTO bitvar_tbl VALUES (0xaa, 0xaa); INSERT INTO bitvar_tbl(a1) VALUES (0xaaa); SELECT * FROM bitvar_tbl; :: a1 a2 ============================================ X'8' X'8' X'a' X'a' X'aa' X'aa' X'aaa' NULL .. code-block:: sql INSERT INTO bitvar_tbl(a2) VALUES (0xaaa); :: ERROR: Data overflow coercing X'aaa' to type bit varying. .. _char-data-type: Character Strings ================= CUBRID supports the following two types of character strings: * Fixed-length character string: **CHAR** (*n*) * Variable-length character string: **VARCHAR** (*n*) .. note:: From CUBRID 9.0 version, **NCHAR** and **NCHAR VARYING** is no more supported. Instead, please use **CHAR** and **VARCHAR**. The following are the rules that are applied when using the character string types. * In general, single quotations are used to enclose character string. Double quotations may be used as well depending on the value of **ansi_quotes**, which is a parameter related to SQL statement. If the **ansi_quotes** value is set to **no**, character string enclosed by double quotations is handled as character string, not as an identifier. The default value is **yes**. For details, :ref:`stmt-type-parameters`. * If there are characters that can be considered to be blank (e.g. spaces, tabs, or line breaks) between two character strings, these two character strings are treated as one according to ANSI standard. For example, the following example shows that a line break exists between two character strings. :: 'abc' 'def' The above two strings and the below string are considered identical. :: 'abcdef' * If you want to include a single quote as part of a character string, enter two single quotes in a row. For example, the character string on the left is stored as the one on the right. :: '''abcde''fghij' 'abcde'fghij * The maximum size of the token for all the character strings is 16 KB. * To enter the language of a specific country, we recommend that you to specify the locale when creating DB, then you can change locale by the introducer **CHARSET** (or **COLLATE** modifier). For more information, see :doc:`/sql/i18n`. **Length** Specify the number of a character string. When the length of the character string entered exceeds the length specified, the excess characters are truncated. For a fixed-length character string type such as **CHAR**, the length is fixed at the declared length. Therefore, the right part (trailing space) of the character string is filled with space characters when the string is stored. For a variable-length character string type such as **VARCHAR**, only the entered character string is stored, and the space is not filled with space characters. The maximum length of a **CHAR** or **VARCHAR** type to be specified is 1,073,741,823. Also, the maximum length that can be input or output in a CSQL statement is 8,192 KB. .. note:: In the CUBRID version less than 9.0, the length of **CHAR** or **VARCHAR** was not the number of characters, but the byte size. **Character Set, charset** A character set (charset) is a set in which rules are defined that relate to what kind of codes can be used for encoding when specified characters (symbols) are stored in the computer. The character used by CUBRID can be configured as the **CUBRID_CHARSET** environment variable. For details, see :doc:`/sql/i18n`. **Collating Character Sets** A collation is a set of rules used for comparing characters to search or sort values stored in the database when a certain character set is specified. For details, see :doc:`/sql/i18n`. **Character String Coercion** Automatic coercion takes place between a fixed-length and a variable-length character string for the comparison of two characters, applicable only to characters that belong to the same character set. For example, when you extract a column value from a **CHAR** (5) data type and insert it into a column with a **CHAR** (10) data type, the data type is automatically coerced to **CHAR** (10). If you want to coerce a character string explicitly, use the **CAST** operator (See :func:`CAST`). CHAR(n) ------- A fixed-length character string is represented as **CHAR** *(n)*, in which *n* represents the number of characters. If *n* is not specified, the value is specified as 1, default value. When the length of a character string exceeds *n*, they are truncated. When character string which is shorter than *n* is stored, whitespace characters are used to fill up the trailing space. **CHAR** (*n*) and **CHARACTER** (*n*) are used interchangeably. .. note:: In the earlier versions of CUBRID 9.0, *n* represents bite length, not the number of characters. * *n* is an integer between 1 and 1,073,741,823 (1G). * Empty quotes (' ') are used to represent a blank string. In this case, the return value of the **LENGTH** function is not 0, but is the fixed length defined in **CHAR** (*n*). That is, if you enter a blank string into a column with **CHAR** (10), the **LENGTH** is 10; if you enter a blank value into a **CHAR** with no length specified, the **LENGTH** is the default value 1. * Space characters used as filling characters are considered to be smaller than any other characters, including special characters. :: If you specify 'pacesetter' as CHAR(12), 'pacesetter ' is stored (a 10-character string plus two whitespace characters). If you specify 'pacesetter ' as CHAR(10), 'pacesetter' is stored (a 10-character string; two whitespace characters are truncated). If you specify 'pacesetter' as CHAR(4), 'pace' is stored (truncated as the length of the character string is greater than 4). If you specify 'p ' as CHAR, 'p' is stored (if n is not specified, the length is set to the default value 1). * **DEFAULT** constraint can be specified in a column of this type. VARCHAR(n)/CHAR VARYING(n) -------------------------- Variable-length character strings are represented as **VARCHAR** (*n*), where *n* represents the number of characters. If *n* is not specified, the value is specified as 1,073,741,823, the maximum length. When the length of a character string exceeds *n*, they are truncated. When character string which is shorter than *n* is stored, whitespace characters are used to fill up the trailing space for **VARCHAR** (*n*), the length of string used are stored. **VARCHAR** (*n*), **CHARACTER, VARYING** (*n*), and **CHAR VARYING** (*n*) are used interchangeably. .. note:: In the earlier versions of CUBRID 9.0, *n* represents bite length, not the number of characters. * **STRING** is the same as the **VARCHAR** (maximum length). * *n* is an integer between 1 and 1,073,741,823 (1G). * Empty quotes (' ') are used to represent a blank string. In this case, the return value of the **LENGTH** function is not 0. :: If you specify 'pacesetter' as CHAR(4), 'pace' is stored (truncated as the length of the character string is greater than 4). If you specify 'pacesetter' as VARCHAR(12), 'pacesetter' is stored (a 10-character string). If you specify 'pacesetter ' as VARCHAR(12), 'pacesetter ' is stored (a 10-character string plus two whitespace characters). If you specify 'pacesetter ' as VARCHAR(10), 'pacesetter' is stored (a 10-character string; two whitespace characters are truncated). If you specify 'p ' as VARCHAR, 'p' is stored (if n is not specified, the default value 1,073,741,823 is used, and the trailing space is not filled with whitespace characters). * **DEFAULT** constraint can be specified in a column of this type. STRING ------ **STRING** is a variable-length character string data type. **STRING** is the same as the VARCHAR with the length specified as the maximum value. That is, **STRING** and **VARCHAR** (1,073,741,823) have the same value. .. _escape-characters: Escape Special Characters ------------------------- CUBRID supports two kinds of methods to escape special characters. One is using quotes and the other is using backslash (\\). * Escape with Quotes If you set **no** for the system parameter **ansi_quotes** in the **cubrid.conf** file, you can use both double quotes (") and singe quotes (') to wrap strings. The default value for the **ansi_quotes** parameter is **yes**, and you can use only single quotes to wrap the string. * You should use two single quotes ('') for the single quotes included in the strings wrapped in single quotes. * You should use two double quotes ("") for the double quotes included in the strings wrapped in double quotes. (when **ansi_quotes** = **no**) * You don't need to escape the single quotes included in the string wrapped in double quotes. (when **ansi_quotes** = **no**) * You don't need to escape the double quotes included in the string wrapped in single quotes. * Escape with Backslash You can use escape using backslash (\\) only if you set no for the system parameter **no_backslash_escapes** in the **cubrid.conf** file. The default value for the **no_backslash_escapes** parameter is **yes**. If the value of **no_backslash_escapes** is **no**, the following are the special characters. * \\' : Single quotes (') * \\" : Double quotes (") * \\n : Newline, linefeed character * \\r : Carriage return character * \\t : Tab character * \\\\ : Backslash * \\% : Percent sign (%). For details, see the following description. * \\_ : Underbar (\_). For details, see the following description. For all other escapes, the backslash will be ignored. For example, "\x" is the same as entering only "x". **\\%** and **\\_** are used in the pattern matching syntax such as **LIKE** to search percent signs and underbars and are used as a wildcard character if there is no backslash. Outside of the pattern matching syntax, "\\%"and "\\_" are recognized as normal strings not wildcard characters. For details, see :ref:`like-expr`. The following is the result of executing Escape if a value for the system parameter **ansi_quotes** in the **cubrid.conf** file is yes(default), and a value for **no_backslash_escapes** is no. .. code-block:: sql -- ansi_quotes=yes, no_backslash_escapes=no SELECT STRCMP('single quotes test('')', 'single quotes test(\')'); If you run the above query, backslash is regarded as an escape character. Therefore, above two strings are the same. :: strcmp('single quotes test('')', 'single quotes test('')') ============================================================= 0 .. code-block:: sql SELECT STRCMP('\a\b\c\d\e\f\g\h\i\j\k\l\m\n\o\p\q\r\s\t\u\v\w\x\y\z', 'a\bcdefghijklm\nopq\rs\tuvwxyz'); If you run the above query, backslash is regarded as an escape character. Therefore, above two strings are the same. :: strcmp('abcdefghijklm s uvwxyz', 'abcdefghijklm s uvwxyz') ===================================================================== 0 .. code-block:: sql SELECT LENGTH('\\'); If you run the above query, backslash is regarded as an escape character. Therefore, the length of above string is 1. :: char_length('\') =================== 1 The following is the result of executing Escape if a value for the system parameter **ansi_quotes** in the **cubrid.conf** file is yes(default), and a value for **no_backslash_escapes** is yes(default). Backslash character is regarded as a general character. .. code-block:: sql -- ansi_quotes=yes, no_backslash_escapes=yes SELECT STRCMP('single quotes test('')', 'single quotes test(\')'); If you run the above query, the quotation mark is regarded as opened, so the below error occurs. If you input this query on the CSQL interpreter's console, it waits the next quotation mark's input. :: ERROR: syntax error, unexpected UNTERMINATED_STRING, expecting SELECT or VALUE or VALUES or '(' .. code-block:: sql SELECT STRCMP('\a\b\c\d\e\f\g\h\i\j\k\l\m\n\o\p\q\r\s\t\u\v\w\x\y\z', 'a\bcdefghijklm\nopq\rs\tuvwxyz'); If you run the above query, backslash is regarded as a general character. Therefore, the result of the comparison between the above two strings shows different. :: strcmp('\a\b\c\d\e\f\g\h\i\j\k\l\m\n\o\p\q\r\s\t\u\v\w\x\y\z', 'a\bcdefghijklm\nopq\rs\tuvwxyz') =================================================================================================== -1 .. code-block:: sql SELECT LENGTH('\\'); If you run the above query, backslash is regarded as a general character. Therefore, the length of above string is 2. :: char_length('\\') ==================== 2 The following shows the result of executing Escape about the LIKE clause when **ansi_quotes** is yes and **no_backslash_escapes** is no. .. code-block:: sql -- ansi_quotes=yes, no_backslash_escapes=no CREATE TABLE t1 (a VARCHAR(200)); INSERT INTO t1 VALUES ('aaabbb'), ('aaa%'); SELECT a FROM t1 WHERE a LIKE 'aaa\%' ESCAPE '\\'; :: a ====================== 'aaa%' If you run above query, it returns only one row because '%' character is regarded as a general character. In the string of LIKE clause, backslash is always regarded as a general character. Therefore, if you want to make the '%' character as a general character, not as an pattern matching character, you should specify that '%' is an escape character by using ESCAPE clause. In the ESCAPE clause, backslash is regarded as an escape character. Therefore, we used two backslashes. If you want use other character than a backslash as an escape character, you can write the query as follows. .. code-block:: sql SELECT a FROM t1 WHERE a LIKE 'aaa#%' ESCAPE '#'; ENUM Data Type ============== The **ENUM** type is a data type consisting of an ordered set of distinct constant char literals called enum values. The syntax for creating an enum column is:: : ENUM '(' ')' : ',' CHAR_STRING | CHAR_STRING The following example shows the definition of an **ENUM** column. .. code-block:: sql CREATE TABLE tbl ( color ENUM ('red', 'yellow', 'blue', 'green') ); * **DEFAULT** constraint can be specified in a column of this type. An index is associated to each element of the enum set, according to the order in which elements are defined in the enum type. For example, the *color* column can have one of the following values (assuming that the column allows NULL values) : ========= ============ Value Index Number ========= ============ NULL NULL 'red' 1 'yellow' 2 'blue' 3 'green' 4 ========= ============ The set of values of an **ENUM** type must not exceed 512 elements and each element of the set must be unique. CUBRID allocates two bytes of storage for each **ENUM** type value because it only stores the index of each value. This reduces the storage space needed which may improve performance. Either the enum value or the value index can be used when working with **ENUM** types. For example, to insert values into an **ENUM** type column, users can use either the value or the index of the **ENUM** type: .. code-block:: sql -- insert enum element 'yellow' with index 2 INSERT INTO tbl (color) VALUES ('yellow'); -- insert enum element 'red' with index 1 INSERT INTO tbl (color) VALUES (1); When used in expressions, the **ENUM** type behaves either as a **CHAR** type or as a number, depending on the context in which it is used: .. code-block:: sql -- the first result column has ENUM type, the second has INTEGER type and the third has VARCHAR type SELECT color, color + 0, CONCAT(color, '') FROM tbl; :: color color+0 concat(color, '') ========================================================= 'yellow' 2 'yellow' 'red' 1 'red' When used in type contexts other than **CHAR** or numbers, the enum is coerced to that type using either the index or the enum value. The table below shows which part of an **ENUM** type is used in the coercion: +---------------+-------------------------+ | Type | Enum type (Index/Value) | +===============+=========================+ | SHORT | Index | +---------------+-------------------------+ | INTEGER | Index | +---------------+-------------------------+ | BIGINT | Index | +---------------+-------------------------+ | FLOAT | Index | +---------------+-------------------------+ | DOUBLE | Index | +---------------+-------------------------+ | NUMERIC | Index | +---------------+-------------------------+ | TIME | Value | +---------------+-------------------------+ | DATE | Value | +---------------+-------------------------+ | DATETIME | Value | +---------------+-------------------------+ | TIMESTAMP | Value | +---------------+-------------------------+ | CHAR | Value | +---------------+-------------------------+ | VARCHAR | Value | +---------------+-------------------------+ | BIT | Value | +---------------+-------------------------+ | VARBIT | Value | +---------------+-------------------------+ ENUM Type Comparisons ----------------------- When used in **=** or **IN** predicates of the form ( ), CUBRID tries to convert the constant to the **ENUM** type. If the coercion fails, CUBRID does not return an error but considers the comparison to be false. This is implemented like this in order to allow index scan plans to be generated on these two operators. For all other :doc:`comparison operators`, the **ENUM** type is converted to the type of the other operand. If a comparison is performed on two **ENUM** types, both arguments are converted to **CHAR** type and the comparison follows **CHAR** type rules. Except for **=** and **IN**, predicates on **ENUM** columns cannot be used in index scan plans. To understand these rules, consider the following table: .. code-block:: sql CREATE TABLE tbl ( color ENUM ('red', 'yellow', 'blue', 'green') ); INSERT INTO tbl (color) VALUES (1), (2), (3), (4); The following query will convert the constant 'red' to the enum value 'red' with index 1 .. code-block:: sql SELECT color FROM tbl WHERE color = 'red'; :: color ====================== 'red' .. code-block:: sql SELECT color FROM tbl WHERE color = 1; :: color ====================== 'red' The following queries will not return a conversion error but will not return any results: .. code-block:: sql SELECT color FROM tbl WHERE color = date'2010-01-01'; SELECT color FROM tbl WHERE color = 15; SELECT color FROM tbl WHERE color = 'asdf'; In the following queries the **ENUM** type will be converted to the type of the other operand: .. code-block:: sql -- CHAR comparison using the enum value SELECT color FROM tbl WHERE color < 'pink'; :: color ====================== 'blue' 'green' .. code-block:: sql -- INTEGER comparison using the enum index SELECT color FROM tbl WHERE color > 3; :: color ====================== 'green' .. code-block:: sql -- Conversion error SELECT color FROM tbl WHERE color > date'2012-01-01'; :: ERROR: Cannot coerce value of domain "enum" to domain "date". ENUM Type Ordering ------------------ Values of the **ENUM** type are ordered by value index, not by enum value. When defining a column with **ENUM** type, users also define the ordering of the enum values. .. code-block:: sql SELECT color FROM tbl ORDER BY color ASC; :: color ====================== 'red' 'yellow' 'blue' 'green' To order the values stored in an **ENUM** type column as **CHAR** values, users can cast the enum value to the **CHAR** type: .. code-block:: sql SELECT color FROM tbl ORDER BY CAST (color AS VARCHAR) ASC; :: color ====================== 'blue' 'green' 'red' 'yellow' Notes ----- The **ENUM** type is not a reusable type. If several columns require the same set of values, an **ENUM** type must be defined for each one. When comparing two columns of **ENUM** type, the comparison is performed as if the columns were coerced to **CHAR** type even if the two **ENUM** types define the same set of values. Using the **ALTER ... CHANGE** statement to modify the set of values of an **ENUM** type is only allowed if the value of the system parameter **alter_table_change_type_strict** is set to yes. In this case, CUBRID uses enum value (the char-literal) to convert values to the new domain. If a value is outside of the new **ENUM** type values set, it is automatically mapped to the empty string(''). .. code-block:: sql CREATE TABLE tbl(color ENUM ('red', 'green', 'blue')); INSERT INTO tbl VALUES('red'), ('green'), ('blue'); The following statement will extend the **ENUM** type with the value 'yellow': .. code-block:: sql ALTER TABLE tbl CHANGE color color ENUM ('red', 'green', 'blue', 'yellow'); INSERT into tbl VALUES(4); SELECT color FROM tbl; :: color ====================== 'red' 'green' 'blue' 'yellow' The following statement will change all tuples with value 'green' to value 'red' because the value 'green' cannot be converted the new **ENUM** type: .. code-block:: sql ALTER TABLE tbl CHANGE color color enum ('red', 'yellow', 'blue'); SELECT color FROM tbl; :: color ====================== 'red' '' 'blue' 'yellow' The **ENUM** type is mapped to char-string types in CUBRID drivers. The following example shows how to use the **ENUM** type in a JDBC application: .. code-block:: java Statement stmt = connection.createStatement("SELECT color FROM tbl"); ResultSet rs = stmt.executeQuery(); while(rs.next()) { System.out.println(rs.getString()); } The following example shows how to use the **ENUM** type in a CCI application. .. code-block:: c req_id = cci_prepare (conn, "SELECT color FROM tbl", 0, &err); error = cci_execute (req_id, 0, 0, &err); if (error < CCI_ER_NO_ERROR) { /* handle error */ } error = cci_cursor (req_id, 1, CCI_CURSOR_CURRENT, &err); if (error < CCI_ER_NO_ERROR) { /* handle error */ } error = cci_fetch (req_id, &err); if (error < CCI_ER_NO_ERROR) { /* handle error */ } cci_get_data (req, idx, CCI_A_TYPE_STR, &data, 1); .. _blob-clob: BLOB/CLOB Data Types ==================== An External **LOB** type is data to process Large Object, such as text or images. When LOB-type data is created and inserted, it will be stored in a file to an external storage, and the location information of the relevant file (**LOB** Locator) will be stored in the CUBRID database. If the **LOB** Locator is deleted from the database, the relevant file that was stored in the external storage will be deleted as well. CUBRID supports the following two types of **LOB** : * Binary Large Object (**BLOB**) * Character Large Object (**CLOB**) .. note:: **Terminologies** * **LOB** (Large Object): Large-sized objects such as binaries or text. * **FBO** (File Based Object): An object that stores data of the database in an external file. * **External LOB**\ : An object better known as FBO, which stores **LOB** data in a file into an external DB. It is supported by CUBRID. Internal **LOB** is an object that stores **LOB** data inside the DB. * **External Storage**\ : An external storage to store LOB (example : POSIX file system). * **LOB Locator**\ : The path name of a file stored in external storage. * **LOB Data**\ : Details of a file in a specific location of LOB Locator. When storing LOB data in external storage, the following naming convention will be applied: :: {table_name}_{unique_name} * *table_name* : It is inserted as a prefix and able to store the **LOB** data of many tables in one external storage. * *unique_name* : The random name created by the DB server. **LOB** data is stored in the local file system of the DB server. LOB data is stored in the path specified in the **-lob-base-path option** value of **cubrid createdb**; if this value is omitted, the data will be stored in the [db-vol path]/lob path where the database volume will be created. For more details, see :ref:`creating-database` and :ref:`lob-storage`. If a user change any **LOB** file without using CUBRID API or CUBRID tools, data consistency is not guaranteed. If a **LOB** data file path that was registered to the database directory file(**databases.txt**) is deleted, please note that database server (**cub_server**) and standalone utilities will not correctly work. BLOB ---- A type that stores binary data outside the database. The maximum length of **BLOB** data is the maximum file size creatable in an external storage. In SQL statements, the **BLOB** type expresses the input and output value in a bit string. That is, it is compatible with the **BIT** (n) and **BIT VARYING** (n) types, and only an explicit type change is allowed. If data lengths differ from one another, the maximum length is truncated to fit the smaller one. When converting the **BLOB** type value to a binary value, the length of the converted data cannot exceed 1GB. When converting binary data to the **BLOB** type, the size of the converted data cannot exceed the maximum file size provided by the **BLOB** storage. CLOB ---- A type that stores character string data outside the database. The maximum length of **CLOB** data is the maximum file size creatable in an external storage. In SQL statements, the CLOB type expresses the input and output value in a character string. That is, it is compatible with the **CHAR** (n), **VARCHAR** (n) types. However, only an explicit type change is allowed, and if data lengths are different from one another, the maximum length is truncated to fit to the smaller one. When converting the **CLOB** type value to a character string, the length of the converted data cannot exceed 1 GB. When converting a character string to the **CLOB** type, the size of the converted data cannot exceed the maximum file size provided by the **CLOB** storage. To Create and alter LOB ----------------------- **BLOB** / **CLOB** type columns can be created/added/deleted by using a **CREATE TABLE** statement or an **ALTER TABLE** statement. * You cannot create the index file for a **LOB** type column. * You cannot define the **PRIMARY KEY**, **FOREIGN KEY**, **UNIQUE**, **NOT NULL** constraints for a **LOB** type column. However, **SHARED** property cannot be defined and **DEFAULT** property can only be defined by the **NULL** value. * **LOB** type column/data cannot be the element of collection type. * If you are deleting a record containing a **LOB** type column, all files located inside a **LOB** column value (Locator) and the external storage will be deleted. When a record containing a LOB type column is deleted in a basic key table, and a record of a foreign key table that refers to the foregoing details is deleted at once, all **LOB** files located in a **LOB** column value (Locator) and the external storage will be deleted. However, if the relevant table is deleted by using a **DROP TABLE** statement, or a **LOB** column is deleted by using an **ALTER TABLE...DROP** statement, only a **LOB** column value (**LOB** Locator) is deleted, and the **LOB** files inside the external storage which a **LOB** column refers to will not be deleted. .. code-block:: sql -- creating a table and CLOB column CREATE TABLE doc_t (doc_id VARCHAR(64) PRIMARY KEY, content CLOB); -- an error occurs when UNIQUE constraint is defined on CLOB column ALTER TABLE doc_t ADD CONSTRAINT content_unique UNIQUE(content); -- an error occurs when creating an index on CLOB column CREATE INDEX i_doc_t_content ON doc_t (content); -- creating a table and BLOB column CREATE TABLE image_t (image_id VARCHAR(36) PRIMARY KEY, doc_id VARCHAR(64) NOT NULL, image BLOB); -- an error occurs when adding a BOLB column with NOT NULL constraint ALTER TABLE image_t ADD COLUMN thumbnail BLOB NOT NULL; -- an error occurs when adding a BLOB column with DEFAULT attribute ALTER TABLE image_t ADD COLUMN thumbnail2 BLOB DEFAULT BIT_TO_BLOB(X'010101'); To store and update LOB ----------------------- In a **BLOB** / **CLOB** type column, each **BLOB** / **CLOB** type value is stored, and if binary or character string data is input, you must explicitly change the types by using each :func:`BIT_TO_BLOB` and :func:`CHAR_TO_CLOB` function. If a value is input in a **LOB** column by using an **INSERT** statement, a file is created in an external storage internally and the relevant data is stored; the relevant file path (Locator) is stored in an actual column value. If a record containing a **LOB** column uses a **DELETE** statement, a file to which the relevant **LOB** column refers will be deleted simultaneously. If a **LOB** column value is changed using an **UPDATE** statement, the column value will be changed following the operation below, according to whether a new value is **NULL** or not. * If a **LOB** type column value is changed to a value that is not **NULL** : If a Locator that refers to an external file is already available in a **LOB** column, the relevant file will be deleted. A new file is created afterwards. After storing a value that is not **NULL**, a Locator for a new file will be stored in a **LOB** column value. * If changing a **LOB** type column value to **NULL** : If a Locator that refers to an external file is already available in a **LOB** column, the relevant file will be deleted. And then **NULL** is stored in a **LOB** column value. .. code-block:: sql -- inserting data after explicit type conversion into CLOB type column INSERT INTO doc_t (doc_id, content) VALUES ('doc-1', CHAR_TO_CLOB('This is a Dog')); INSERT INTO doc_t (doc_id, content) VALUES ('doc-2', CHAR_TO_CLOB('This is a Cat')); -- inserting data after explicit type conversion into BLOB type column INSERT INTO image_t VALUES ('image-0', 'doc-0', BIT_TO_BLOB(X'000001')); INSERT INTO image_t VALUES ('image-1', 'doc-1', BIT_TO_BLOB(X'000010')); INSERT INTO image_t VALUES ('image-2', 'doc-2', BIT_TO_BLOB(X'000100')); -- inserting data from a sub-query result INSERT INTO image_t SELECT 'image-1010', 'doc-1010', image FROM image_t WHERE image_id = 'image-0'; -- updating CLOB column value to NULL UPDATE doc_t SET content = NULL WHERE doc_id = 'doc-1'; -- updating CLOB column value UPDATE doc_t SET content = CHAR_TO_CLOB('This is a Dog') WHERE doc_id = 'doc-1'; -- updating BLOB column value UPDATE image_t SET image = (SELECT image FROM image_t WHERE image_id = 'image-0') WHERE image_id = 'image-1'; -- deleting BLOB column value and its referencing files DELETE FROM image_t WHERE image_id = 'image-1010'; To access LOB ------------- When you get a **LOB** type column, the data stored in a file to which the column refers will be displayed. You can execute an explicit type change by using :func:`CAST` operator, :func:`CLOB_TO_CHAR` and :func:`BLOB_TO_BIT` function. * If the query is executed in CSQL, a column value (Locator) will be displayed, instead of the data stored in a file. To display the data to which a **BLOB** / **CLOB** column refers, it must be changed to strings by :func:`CLOB_TO_CHAR` function. * To use the string process function, the strings need to be converted by :func:`CLOB_TO_CHAR` function. * You cannot specify a **LOB** column in ** GROUP BY** clause and **ORDER BY** clause. * Comparison operators, relational operators, **IN**, **NOT IN** operators cannot be used to compare **LOB** columns. However, **IS NULL** expression can be used to compare whether it is a **LOB** column value (Locator) or **NULL**. This means that **TRUE** will be returned when a column value is **NULL**, and if a column value is **NULL**, there is no file to store **LOB** data. * When a **LOB** column is created, and the file is deleted after data input, a **LOB** column value (Locator) will become a state that is referring to an invalid file. As such, using :func:`CLOB_TO_CHAR`, :func:`BLOB_TO_BIT`, :func:`CLOB_LENGTH` and :func:`BLOB_LENGTH` functions on the columns that have mismatching **LOB** Locator and a **LOB** data file enables them to display **NULL**. .. code-block:: sql -- displaying locator value when selecting CLOB and BLOB column in CSQL interpreter SELECT doc_t.doc_id, content, image FROM doc_t, image_t WHERE doc_t.doc_id = image_t.doc_id; :: doc_id content image ================================================================== 'doc-1' file:/home1/data1/ces_658/doc_t.00001282208855807171_7329 file:/home1/data1/ces_318/image_t.00001282208855809474_7474 'doc-2' file:/home1/data1/ces_180/doc_t.00001282208854194135_5598 file:/home1/data1/ces_519/image_t.00001282208854205773_1215 2 rows selected. .. code-block:: sql -- using string functions after coercing its type by CLOB_TO_CHAR( ) SELECT CLOB_TO_CHAR(content), SUBSTRING(CLOB_TO_CHAR(content), 10) FROM doc_t; :: clob_to_char(content) substring( clob_to_char(content) from 10) ============================================ 'This is a Dog' ' Dog' 'This is a Cat' ' Cat' 2 rows selected. .. code-block:: sql SELECT CLOB_TO_CHAR(content) FROM doc_t WHERE CLOB_TO_CHAR(content) LIKE '%Dog%'; :: clob_to_char(content) ====================== 'This is a Dog' .. code-block:: sql SELECT CLOB_TO_CHAR(content) FROM doc_t ORDER BY CLOB_TO_CHAR(content); :: clob_to_char(content) ====================== 'This is a Cat' 'This is a Dog' .. code-block:: sql SELECT * FROM doc_t WHERE content LIKE 'This%'; :: doc_id content ============================================ 'doc-1' file:/home1/data1/ces_004/doc_t.00001366272829040346_0773 'doc-2' file:/home1/data1/ces_256/doc_t.00001366272815153996_1229 .. code-block:: sql -- an error occurs when LOB column specified in ORDER BY/GROUP BY clauses SELECT * FROM doc_t ORDER BY content; :: ERROR: doc_t.content can not be an ORDER BY column Functions and Operators for LOB ------------------------------- You can explicitly cast bit/string type to **BLOB**/**CLOB** type and **BLOB**/**CLOB** type to bit/string type with :func:`CAST` operator. For more details, see :func:`CAST` operator. :: CAST ( AS { BLOB | CLOB }) CAST ( AS { BLOB | CLOB }) These are the functions for BLOB/CLOB types. For more details, refer :doc:`/sql/function/lob_fn`. * :func:`CLOB_TO_CHAR` * :func:`BLOB_TO_BIT` * :func:`CHAR_TO_CLOB` * :func:`BIT_TO_BLOB` * :func:`CHAR_TO_BLOB` * :func:`CLOB_FROM_FILE` * :func:`BLOB_FROM_FILE` * :func:`CLOB_LENGTH` * :func:`BLOB_LENGTH` .. note:: " <*blob_or_clob_column* **IS NULL** ": using **IS NULL** condition, it compares the value of **LOB** column(Locator) if it's **NULL** or not. If it's **NULL**, this condition returns **TRUE**. .. _lob-storage: To create and manage LOB storage -------------------------------- By default, the **LOB** data file is stored in the /lob directory where database volume is created. However, if the lob base path is specified with :option:`createdb -B` option when creating the database, **LOB** data files will be stored in the directory designated. However, if the specified directory does not exist, CUBRID tries to create the directory and display an error message when it fails to create it. For more details, see :option:`createdb -B` option. :: # image_db volume is created in the current work directory, and a LOB data file will be stored. % cubrid createdb image_db en_US # LOB data file is stored in the "/home1/data1" path within a local file system. % cubrid createdb --lob-base-path="file:/home1/data1" image_db en_US You can identify a directory where a LOB file will be stored by executing the cubrid spacedb utility. :: % cubrid spacedb image_db Space description for database 'image_db' with pagesize 16.0K. (log pagesize: 16.0K) Volid Purpose total_size free_size Vol Name 0 GENERIC 512.0M 510.1M /home1/data1/image_db Space description for temporary volumes for database 'image_db' with pagesize 16.0K. Volid Purpose total_size free_size Vol Name LOB space description file:/home1/data1 To expand or change the **lob-base-path** of the database, change its **lob-base-path** of **databases.txt** file. Restart the database server to apply the changes made to **databases.txt**. However, even if you change the **lob-base-path** of **databases.txt**, access to the **LOB** data stored in a previous storage is possible. :: # You can change to a new directory from the lob-base-path of databases.txt file. % cat $CUBRID_DATABASES/databases.txt #db-name vol-path db-host log-path lob-base-path image_db /home1/data1 localhost /home1/data1 file:/home1/data2 Backup/recovery for data files of **LOB** type columns are not supported, while those for meta data(Locator) are supported. If you are copying a database by using :program:`copydb` utility, you must configure the **databases.txt** additionally, as the **LOB** file directory path will not be copied if the related option is not specified. For more details, see the :option:`copydb -B` and :option:`copydb --copy-lob-path` options. Transaction and Recovery ------------------------ Commit/Rollback for **LOB** data changes are supported. That is, it ensures the validation of mapping between **LOB** Locator and actual **LOB** data within transactions, and it supports recovery during DB errors. This means that an error will be displayed in case of mapping errors between **LOB** Locator and **LOB** data due to the rollback of the relevant transactions, as the database is terminated during transactions. See the example below. .. code-block:: sql -- csql> ;AUTOCOMMIT OFF CREATE TABLE doc_t (doc_id VARCHAR(64) PRIMARY KEY, content CLOB); INSERT INTO doc_t VALUES ('doc-10', CHAR_TO_CLOB('This is content')); COMMIT; UPDATE doc_t SET content = CHAR_TO_CLOB('This is content 2') WHERE doc_id = 'doc-10'; ROLLBACK; SELECT doc_id, CLOB_TO_CHAR(content) FROM doc_t WHERE doc_id = 'doc-10'; :: doc_id content ========================================================= 'doc-10' 'This is content' .. code-block:: sql -- csql> ;AUTOCOMMIT OFF INSERT INTO doc_t VALUES ('doc-11', CHAR_TO_CLOB ('This is content')); COMMIT; UPDATE doc_t SET content = CHAR_TO_CLOB('This is content 3') WHERE doc_id = 'doc-11'; -- system crash occurred and then restart server SELECT doc_id, CLOB_TO_CHAR(content) FROM doc_t WHERE doc_id = 'doc-11'; :: -- Error : LOB Locator references to the previous LOB data because only LOB Locator is rollbacked. .. note:: * When selecting **LOB** data in an application through a driver such as JDBC, the driver can get **ResultSet** from DB server and fetch the record while changing the cursor location on **Resultset**. That is, only Locator, the meta data of a **LOB** column, is stored at the time when **ResultSet** is imported, and **LOB** data that is referred by a File Locator will be fetched from the file Locator at the time when a record is fetched. Therefore, if **LOB** data is updated between two different points of time, there could be an error, as the mapping of **LOB** Locator and actual **LOB** data will be invalid. * Since backup/recovery is supported only for meta data (Locator) of the **LOB** type columns, an error is likely to occur, as the mapping of **LOB** Locator and LOB data is invalid if recovery is performed based on a specific point of time. * TO execute **INSERT** the **LOB** data into other device, LOB data referred by the meta data (Locator) of a **LOB** column must be read. * In a CUBRID HA environment, the meta data (Locator) of a **LOB** column is replicated and data of a **LOB** type is not replicated. Therefore, if storage of a **LOB** type is located on the local machine, no tasks on the columns in a slave node or a master node after failover are allowed. .. warning:: Up to CUBRID 2008 R3.0, Large Objects are processed by using **glo** (Generalized Large Object) classes. However, the **glo** classes has been deprecated since the CUBRID 2008 R3.1. Instead of it, **LOB** / **CLOB** data type is supported. Therefore, both DB schema and application must be modified when upgrading CUBRID in an environment using the previous version of **glo** classes. .. _collection-data-type: Collection Types ================ Allowing multiple data values to be stored in a single attribute is an extended feature of relational database. Each element of a collection is possible to have different data type each other except View. Rest types except BLOB and CLOB can be an element of collection types. +--------------+---------------------------------------+------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+ | Type | Description | Definition | Input Data | Stored Data | +==============+=======================================+====================================+============================+============================+ | **SET** | A union which does not allow | col_name SET VARCHAR(20) or | {'c','c','c','b','b','a'} | {'a','b','c'} | | | duplicates | col_name SET (VARCHAR(20)) | | | +--------------+---------------------------------------+------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+ | **MULTISET** | A union which allows | col_name MULTISET VARCHAR(20) or | {'c','c','c','b','b','a'} | {'a','b','b','c','c','c'} | | | duplicates | col_name MULTISET (VARCHAR(20)) | | | +--------------+---------------------------------------+------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+ | **LIST** or | A union which allows duplicates | col_name LIST VARCHAR(20) or | {'c','c','c','b','b','a'} | {'c','c','c','b','b','a'} | | **SEQUENCE** | and stores data in the order of input | col_name LIST (VARCHAR(20)) | | | +--------------+---------------------------------------+------------------------------------+----------------------------+----------------------------+ As you see the table above, the value specified as a collection type can be inputted with curly braces ('{', '}') each value is separated with a comma (,). If the specified collection types are identical, the collection types can be cast explicitly by using the **CAST** operator. The following table shows the collection types that allow explicit coercions. +--------------+-----+----------+------+ | FROM \\ TO | SET | MULTISET | LIST | +==============+=====+==========+======+ | **SET** | \- | Yes | Yes | +--------------+-----+----------+------+ | **MULTISET** | Yes | \- | No | +--------------+-----+----------+------+ | **LIST** | Yes | Yes | \- | +--------------+-----+----------+------+ Collection Types do not support collations. Therefore, Below query returns error. .. code-block:: sql CREATE TABLE tbl (str SET (string) COLLATE utf8_en_ci); :: Syntax error: unexpected 'COLLATE', expecting ',' or ')' SET --- **SET** is a collection type in which each element has different values. Elements of a **SET** are allowed to have only one data type. It can have records of other tables. .. code-block:: sql CREATE TABLE set_tbl (col_1 SET (CHAR(1))); INSERT INTO set_tbl VALUES ({'c','c','c','b','b','a'}); INSERT INTO set_tbl VALUES ({NULL}); INSERT INTO set_tbl VALUES ({''}); SELECT * FROM set_tbl; :: col_1 ====================== {'a', 'b', 'c'} {NULL} {' '} .. code-block:: sql SELECT CAST (col_1 AS MULTISET), CAST (col_1 AS LIST) FROM set_tbl; :: cast(col_1 as multiset) cast(col_1 as sequence) ============================================ {'a', 'b', 'c'} {'a', 'b', 'c'} {NULL} {NULL} {' '} {' '} .. code-block:: sql INSERT INTO set_tbl VALUES (''); :: ERROR: Casting '' to type set is not supported. MULTISET -------- **MULTISET** is a collection type in which duplicated elements are allowed. Elements of a **MULTISET** are allowed to have only one data type. It can have records of other tables. .. code-block:: sql CREATE TABLE multiset_tbl (col_1 MULTISET (CHAR(1))); INSERT INTO multiset_tbl VALUES ({'c','c','c','b','b', 'a'}); SELECT * FROM multiset_tbl; :: col_1 ====================== {'a', 'b', 'b', 'c', 'c', 'c'} .. code-block:: sql SELECT CAST(col_1 AS SET), CAST(col_1 AS LIST) FROM multiset_tbl; :: cast(col_1 as set) cast(col_1 as sequence) ============================================ {'a', 'b', 'c'} {'c', 'c', 'c', 'b', 'b', 'a'} LIST/SEQUENCE ------------- **LIST** (= **SEQUENCE**) is a collection type in which the input order of elements is preserved, and duplications are allowed. Elements of a **LIST** are allowed to have only one data type. It can have records of other tables. .. code-block:: sql CREATE TABLE list_tbl (col_1 LIST (CHAR(1))); INSERT INTO list_tbl VALUES ({'c','c','c','b','b', 'a'}); SELECT * FROM list_tbl; :: col_1 ====================== {'c', 'c', 'c', 'b', 'b', 'a'} .. code-block:: sql SELECT CAST(col_1 AS SET), CAST(col_1 AS MULTISET) FROM list_tbl; :: cast(col_1 as set) cast(col_1 as multiset) ============================================ {'a', 'b', 'c'} {'a', 'b', 'b', 'c', 'c', 'c'} .. _implicit-type-conversion: Implicit Type Conversion ======================== An implicit type conversion represents an automatic conversion of a type of expression to a corresponding type. **SET**, **MULTISET**, **LIST** and **SEQUENCE** should be converted explicitly. If you convert the **DATETIME** and the **TIMESTAMP** types to the **DATE** type or the **TIME** type, data loss may occur. If you convert the **DATE** type to the **DATETIME** type or the **TIMESTAMP** type, the time will be set to '12:00:00 AM.' If you convert a string type or an exact numeric type to a floating-point numeric type, the value may not be accurate. Because a string type and an exact type use a decimal precision to represent the value, but a floating-point numeric type uses a binary precision. The implicit type conversion executed by CUBRID is as follows: **Implicit Type Conversion Table 1** +---------------+--------------+----------+----------+---------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | From \\ To | DATETIME | DATE | TIME | TIMESTAMP | DOUBLE | FLOAT | NUMERIC | BIGINT | +===============+==============+==========+==========+===============+============+===========+=============+============+ | **DATETIME** | \- | O | O | O | | | | | +---------------+--------------+----------+----------+---------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | **DATE** | O | \- | | O | | | | | +---------------+--------------+----------+----------+---------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | **TIME** | | | \- | | | | | | +---------------+--------------+----------+----------+---------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | **TIMESTAMP** | O | O | O | \- | | | | | +---------------+--------------+----------+----------+---------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | **DOUBLE** | | | O | O | \- | O | O | O | +---------------+--------------+----------+----------+---------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | **FLOAT** | | | O | O | O | \- | O | O | +---------------+--------------+----------+----------+---------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | **NUMERIC** | | | | O | O | O | \- | O | +---------------+--------------+----------+----------+---------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | **BIGINT** | | | O | O | O | O | O | \- | +---------------+--------------+----------+----------+---------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | **INT** | | | O | O | O | O | O | O | +---------------+--------------+----------+----------+---------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | **SHORT** | | | O | O | O | O | O | O | +---------------+--------------+----------+----------+---------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | **BIT** | | | | | | | | | +---------------+--------------+----------+----------+---------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | **VARBIT** | | | | | | | | | +---------------+--------------+----------+----------+---------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | **CHAR** | O | O | O | O | O | O | O | O | +---------------+--------------+----------+----------+---------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | **VARCHAR** | O | O | O | O | O | O | O | O | +---------------+--------------+----------+----------+---------------+------------+-----------+-------------+------------+ .. _number-2-time: **Limitations when numeric value is changed as TIME or TIMESTAMP** * All numeric types except for NUMERIC type can be converted into TIME type; at this time, it represents a value of the remainder which is calcuated by dividing the input number into 86,400 seconds(1 day), and the remainder is calculated as seconds. * All numeric types including NUMERIC can be converted into TIMESTAMP type; at this time, the input number cannot exceed 2,147,483,647 as the maximum. **Implicit Type Conversion Table 2** +---------------+---------+-----------+---------+------------+----------+-------------+ | From \\ To | INT | SHORT | BIT | VARBIT | CHAR | VARCHAR | +===============+=========+===========+=========+============+==========+=============+ | **DATETIME** | | | | | O | O | +---------------+---------+-----------+---------+------------+----------+-------------+ | **DATE** | | | | | O | O | +---------------+---------+-----------+---------+------------+----------+-------------+ | **TIME** | | | | | O | O | +---------------+---------+-----------+---------+------------+----------+-------------+ | **TIMESTAMP** | | | | | O | O | +---------------+---------+-----------+---------+------------+----------+-------------+ | **DOUBLE** | O | O | | | O | O | +---------------+---------+-----------+---------+------------+----------+-------------+ | **FLOAT** | O | O | | | O | O | +---------------+---------+-----------+---------+------------+----------+-------------+ | **NUMERIC** | O | O | | | O | O | +---------------+---------+-----------+---------+------------+----------+-------------+ | **BIGINT** | O | O | | | O | O | +---------------+---------+-----------+---------+------------+----------+-------------+ | **INT** | \- | O | | | O | O | +---------------+---------+-----------+---------+------------+----------+-------------+ | **SHORT** | O | \- | | | O | O | +---------------+---------+-----------+---------+------------+----------+-------------+ | **BIT** | | | \- | O | O | O | +---------------+---------+-----------+---------+------------+----------+-------------+ | **VARBIT** | | | O | \- | O | O | +---------------+---------+-----------+---------+------------+----------+-------------+ | **CHAR** | O | O | O | O | \- | O | +---------------+---------+-----------+---------+------------+----------+-------------+ | **VARCHAR** | O | O | O | O | O | \- | +---------------+---------+-----------+---------+------------+----------+-------------+ Conversion Rules ---------------- INSERT and UPDATE ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ The type will be converted to the type of the column affected. .. code-block:: sql CREATE TABLE t(i INT); INSERT INTO t VALUES('123'); SELECT * FROM t; :: i ============= 123 Function ^^^^^^^^ If the parameter value entered in the function can be converted to the specified type, the parameter type will be converted. The strings are converted to numbers because the input parameter expected in the following function is a number. .. code-block:: sql SELECT MOD('123','2'); :: mod('123', '2') ========================== 1.000000000000000e+00 You can enter multiple type values in the function. If the type value not specified in the function is delivered, the type will be converted depending on the following priority order. * Date/Time Type ( **DATETIME** > **TIMESTAMP** > **DATE** > **TIME** ) * Approximate Numeric Type ( **DOUBLE** > **FLOAT** ) * Exact Numeric Type ( **NUMERIC** > **BIGINT** > **INT** > **SHORT** ) * String Type ( **CHAR** > **VARCHAR** ) Comparison Operation ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ The following are the conversion rules according to an operand type of the comparison operator. +-------------------+-------------------+----------------------------------------------+----------------+ | operand1 Type | operand2 Type | Conversion | Comparison | +===================+===================+==============================================+================+ | Numeric Type | Numeric Type | None | NUMERIC | | +-------------------+----------------------------------------------+----------------+ | | String Type | Converts operand2 to **DOUBLE** | NUMERIC | | +-------------------+----------------------------------------------+----------------+ | | Date/Time Type | Converts operand1 to Date/Time | TIME/TIMESTAMP | +-------------------+-------------------+----------------------------------------------+----------------+ | String Type | Numeric Type | Converts operand1 to **DOUBLE** | NUMERIC | | +-------------------+----------------------------------------------+----------------+ | | String Type | None | String | | +-------------------+----------------------------------------------+----------------+ | | Date/Time Type | Converts operand1 to date/time type | Date/Time | +-------------------+-------------------+----------------------------------------------+----------------+ | Date/Time Type | Numeric Type | Converts operand2 to Date/Time | TIME/TIMESTAMP | | +-------------------+----------------------------------------------+----------------+ | | String Type | Converts operand2 to date/time type | Date/Time | | +-------------------+----------------------------------------------+----------------+ | | Date/Time Type | Converts it to the type with higher priority | Date/Time | +-------------------+-------------------+----------------------------------------------+----------------+ When Date/Time type and numeric type are compared, see :ref:`Limitations when numeric value is changed as TIME or TIMESTAMP ` of the above table. There are exceptions when operand1 is string type and operand2 is a value. +-------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------------+----------------+ | operand1 Type | operand2 Type | Conversion | Comparison | +===================+===================+======================================+================+ | String type | Numeric type | Converts operand2 to the string type | String | | +-------------------+--------------------------------------+----------------+ | | Date/Time type | Converts operand2 to the string type | String | +-------------------+-------------------+--------------------------------------+----------------+ If operand2 is a set operator( **IS IN**, **IS NOT IN**, **= ALL**, **= ANY**, **< ALL**, **< ANY**, **<= ALL**, **<= ANY**, **>= ALL**, **>= ANY** ), the exception above is not applied. The following is examples of implicit type conversion in comparison operations. * **Numeric Type & String Type Operands** The string type operand will be converted to **DOUBLE**. .. code-block:: sql CREATE TABLE t1(i INT, s STRING); INSERT INTO t1 VALUES(1,'1'),(2,'2'),(3,'3'),(4,'4'), (12,'12'); SELECT i FROM t1 WHERE i < '11.3'; :: i ============= 1 2 3 4 .. code-block:: sql SELECT ('2' <= 11); :: ('2'<11) ============= 1 * **String Type & Date/Time Type Operands** The string type operand will be converted to the date/time type. .. code-block:: sql SELECT ('2010-01-01' < date'2010-02-02'); :: ('2010-01-01'= '2010-01-01'); :: (date '2010-02-02'>='2010-01-01') =================================== 1 * **String Type & Numeric Type Host Variable Operands** The numeric type host variable will be converted to the string type. .. code-block:: sql PREPARE s FROM 'SELECT s FROM t1 WHERE s < ?'; EXECUTE s USING 11; :: s =================== '1' * **String Type & Numeric Type value Operands** The numeric type value will be converted to the string type. .. code-block:: sql SELECT s FROM t1 WHERE s > 11; :: s ================== '2' '3' '4' '12' .. code-block:: sql SELECT s FROM t1 WHERE s BETWEEN 11 AND 33; :: s ====================== '2' '3' '12' * **String Type Column & Date/Time Type Value Operands** The date/time type value will be converted to the string type. .. code-block:: sql CREATE TABLE t2 (s STRING); INSERT INTO t2 VALUES ('01/01/1998'), ('01/01/1999'), ('01/01/2000'); SELECT s FROM t2; :: s ====================== '01/01/1998' '01/01/1999' '01/01/2000' .. code-block:: sql SELECT s FROM t2 WHERE s <= date'02/02/1998'; In the above query, comparison operation is performed by converting date'02/02/1998' into string '02/02/1998'. :: s ====================== '01/01/1998' '01/01/1999' '01/01/2000' Range Operation ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ * **Numeric Type and String Type Operands** The string type operand will be converted to **DOUBLE**. .. code-block:: sql CREATE TABLE t3 (i INT); INSERT INTO t3 VALUES (1), (2), (3), (4); SELECT i FROM t3 WHERE i <= ALL {'11','12'}; :: i ============= 1 2 3 4 * **String Type and Date/Time Type Operands** The string type operand will be converted to the date/time type. .. code-block:: sql SELECT s FROM t2; :: s ================= '01/01/1998' '01/01/1999' '01/01/2000' .. code-block:: sql SELECT s FROM t2 WHERE s <= ALL {date'02/02/1998',date'01/01/2000'}; :: s ================ '01/01/1998' An error will be returned if it cannot be converted to the corresponding type. Arithmetic Operation ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ * **Date/Time Type Operand** If the date/time type operands are given to '-' operator and the types are different from each other, it will be converted to the type with a higher priority. The following example shows that the operand data type on the left is converted from **DATE** to **DATETIME** so that the result of '-' operation of **DATETIME** can be outputted in milliseconds. .. code-block:: sql SELECT date'2002-01-01' - datetime'2001-02-02 12:00:00 am'; :: date '2002-01-01'- datetime '2001-02-02 12:00:00 am' ===================================================== 28771200000 * **Numeric Type Operand** If the numeric type operands are given and the types are different from each other, it will be converted to the type with the higher priority. * **Date/Time Type & Numeric Type Operands** If the date/time type and the numeric type operands are given to '+' or '-' operator, the numeric type operand is converted to either **BIGINT**, **INT** or **SHORT**. * **Date/Time Type & String Type Operands** If a date/time type and a string type are operands, only '+' and '-' operators are allowed. If the '+' operator is used, it will be applied according to the following rules. * The string type will be converted to **BIGINT** with an interval value. The interval is the smallest unit for operands in the Date/Time type, and the interval for each type is as follows: * **DATE** : Days * **TIME**, **TIMESTAMP** : Seconds * **DATETIME** : Milliseconds * Floating-point numbers are rounded. * The result type is the type of an date/time operand. .. code-block:: sql SELECT date'2002-01-01' + '10'; :: date '2002-01-01'+'10' ====================== 01/11/2002 If the date/time type and a string type are operands and the '-' operator is used, they will be applied according to the following rules. * If the date/time type operands are **DATE**, **DATETIME** and **TIMESTAMP**, the string will be converted to **DATETIME**; if the date/time operand is **TIME**, the string is converted to **TIME**. * The result type is always **BIGINT**. .. code-block:: sql SELECT date'2002-01-01'-'2001-01-01'; :: date '2002-01-01'-'2001-01-01' ================================ 31536000000 -- this causes an error .. code-block:: sql SELECT date'2002-01-01'-'10'; :: ERROR: Cannot coerce '10' to type datetime. * **Numeric Type & String Type Operands** If a numeric type and a string type are operands, they will be applied according to the following rules. * Strings will be converted to **DOUBLE** when possible. * The result type is **DOUBLE** and depends on the type of the numeric operand. .. code-block:: sql SELECT 4 + '5.2'; :: 4+'5.2' ========================== 9.199999999999999e+00 Unlike CUBRID 2008 R3.1 and the earlier versions, the string in the date/time format, that is, the string such as '2010-09-15' is not converted to the date/time type. You can use a literal (DATE'2010-09-15') with the date/time type for addition and subtraction operations. .. code-block:: sql SELECT '2002-01-01'+1; :: ERROR: Cannot coerce '2002-01-01' to type double. .. code-block:: sql SELECT DATE'2002-01-01'+1; :: date '2002-01-01'+1 ===================== 01/02/2002 * **String Type Operand** If you multiply, divide or subtract both strings, the result returns a **DOUBLE** type value. .. code-block:: sql SELECT '3'*'2'; :: '3'*'2' ============================ 6.000000000000000e+00 The '+' operator action depends on how to set the system parameter **plus_as_concat** in the **cubrid.conf** file. For details, see :ref:`stmt-type-parameters`. * If a value for **plus_as_concat** is yes (default value), the concatenation of two strings will be returned. .. code-block:: sql SELECT '1'+'1'; :: '1'+'1' ====================== '11' * If a value for **plus_as_concat** is no and two strings can be converted to numbers, the **DOUBLE** type value will be returned by adding the two numbers. .. code-block:: sql SELECT '1'+'1'; :: '1'+'1' ========================== 2.000000000000000e+00 An error will be returned if it cannot be converted to the corresponding type. They went down to the water-side to try the effects of a bath in the surf as it rolled in from the Pacific Ocean. They found it refreshing, and were tempted to linger long in the foam-crested waves. Near by there was a fishing-place, where several Japanese were amusing themselves with rod and line, just as American boys and men take pleasure in the same way. Fish seemed to be abundant, as they were biting freely, and it took but a short time to fill a basket. In the little harbor formed between the island and the shore several junks and boats were at anchor, and in the foreground some smaller boats were moving about. There was not an American feature to the scene, and the boys were thoroughly delighted at this perfect picture of Japanese life. It was sea-life, too; and they had island and main, water and mountain, boats and houses, all in a single glance. "For our sick soldiers!" "Yes, I'm going to take that away with me to-day." "I destroyed it. There was no object in keeping it. I tore it up then and there and pitched it on the pavement. The motor was driven by a dumb man, who conveyed me to the corner house. It struck me as strange, but then the owner might have returned. When I got there I found the man subsequently murdered suffering from a combination of alcoholic poisoning and laudanum. It was hard work, but I managed to save him. A Spanish woman--the only creature besides my patient I saw--paid me a fee of three guineas, and there ends the matter." fatherly letter--but frank! He said he saw from the address that I ¡°Who are you, please?¡± Sandy shot the question out suddenly. He had gone back. "You'll come through all right," said the Surgeon smiling. "You're the right kind to live. You've got grit. I'll look at your partner now." 'he Took Another Look at his Heavy Revolver.' 254 But after the gun was gone, and after Shorty had written a laborious letter, informing Sammy of the shipment of the gun and its history, which letter inclosed a crisp greenback, and was almost as urgent in injunctions to Sammy to write as Sammy had been about his piece of ordnance, Shorty sat down in sadness of heart. He was famishing for information from Maria, and at the lowest calculation he could not hope for a letter from Sammy for two weeks. The firing and stone-throwing lasted an hour or more, and then seemed to die down from sheer exhaustion. Odiam had triumphed at last. Just when Reuben's unsettled allegiance should have been given entirely to the wife who had borne him a son, his farm had suddenly snatched from him all his thought, all his care, his love, and his anxiety, all that should have been hers. It seemed almost as if some malignant spirit had controlled events, and for Rose's stroke prepared a counter-stroke that should effectually drive her off the field. The same evening that Rose had gone weeping and shuddering upstairs, Reuben had interviewed the vet. from Rye and heard him say "excema epizootica." This had not conveyed much, so the vet. had translated brutally: "I don't ask for that to-night¡ªall I ask is food and shelter, same as you'd give to a dog." 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